January 25, 2017

Battlefield Visit: Fort Donelson

January 25, 2017/ Seth Marshall

In early 1862, then-Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant led a campaign to capture a number of Confederate forts and towns along vital waterways in southern Kentucky and northern Tennessee. The climax of this campaign came with the capture of Fort Donelson on February 16, 1862 following a battle.

By Seth Marshall

Prior to the start of hostilities in the Civil War, Confederate officials both in Tennessee and further east recognized that defensive positions needed to be established along the Tennessee/Kentucky border to protect the Southern state and its vital waterways. Tennessee governor Isham G. Harris began development of such fortifications during the summer of 1861. Though positions across the Cumberland River would have provided better defenses, the Confederates wished to respect Kentucky’s neutrality. Eventually, a 100-acre site near Dover, the county-seat of Stewart, Tennessee, was selected for what would become Fort Donelson. Named after a senior militia leader, the fort was just 75 miles downstream from Nashville. The fort’s primary armament took the firm of two batteries; the lower battery featured a 10-inch Columbiad and two 32-pounder cannons, while the upper battery contained one rifled 64-pounder Columbiad and two 64-pounder howitzers. All of these guns were dug into the hillside and reinforced with sandbags.[1]

In early 1862, Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant presented a plan to capture the forts along the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers to his commander, Major General Henry Halleck. Though he initially declined the plan, Halleck was eventually convinced by Grant along with Captain Andrew Foote of the US Navy. On February 6th, Grant seized Fort Heiman and Fort Henry after Foote’s gunboats bombarded both. As Confederate soldiers straggled their way to Donelson, Lieutenant General Albert Sidney Johnston ordered reinforcements be sent to the fort. On February 11th, he appointed Brigadier General John B. Floyd as the fort’s commander.[2] Reinforcements meant that the fort now had some 28 infantry regiments, a cavalry regiment, two independent battalions, and six light artillery batteries. Additionally, the fort’s main batteries along the river now had 17 heavy guns covering Cumberland.[3] Altogether, there was some 17,000 soldiers defending the fort.[4] Delayed by a river that had swelled over its banks and snows that had turned the roads to mud, Grant did not move on Donelson until February 12th. The pause gave Halleck time to send Grant additional reinforcements from Cairo. Now with three divisions and 21,500 soldiers under his command and the support of Foote’s six gunboats, Grant set off for Donelson. He left 2500 men under the command of Brigadier General Lew Wallace at Fort Henry. Grant’s forces appeared in front of the Confederate defensive positions near the end of the day, and small skirmishes broke out just before night fell.[5]

Ulysses S. Grant, pictured here as a Lieutenant General, was just a Brigadier General at the time of his campaign against Forts Henry and Donelson, and was in overall command of the Union force in Tennessee. Source: public domain.

Rear Admiral Andrew Foote was one of the first US naval officer to be promoted to the rank of admiral. After commanding the Western Gunboat Flotilla through much of 1862, before moving on to other commands. He died unexpectedly in the summer of 1863… — Rear Admiral Andrew Foote was one of the first US naval officer to be promoted to the rank of admiral. After commanding the Western Gunboat Flotilla through much of 1862, before moving on to other commands. He died unexpectedly in the summer of 1863 while moving to his new command with the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. Source: Public domain.

Brigadier General John B. Floyd was the US Secretary of War before the Civil War began. Despite having no prior military experience, he was commissioned a Brigadier General in the Confederate Army and eventually became the overall Southern commander… — Brigadier General John B. Floyd was the US Secretary of War before the Civil War began. Despite having no prior military experience, he was commissioned a Brigadier General in the Confederate Army and eventually became the overall Southern commander at Fort Donelson. Relieved of his command following the battle, he remained an officer in Virginia's militia until his death in 1863. Source: Public domain.

Brigadier General Simon B. Bruckner was the most experienced Southern commander at Fort Donelson, having served a number of years in the Regular Army prior to the Civil War. He would become the first Confederate general officer to surrender to the U… — Brigadier General Simon B. Bruckner was the most experienced Southern commander at Fort Donelson, having served a number of years in the Regular Army prior to the Civil War. He would become the first Confederate general officer to surrender to the Union Army during the war. He was later returned to the South through a prisoner exchange and held a number of other commands during the remainder of the war. After the war, he entered politics, eventually becoming the Governor of Kentucky, He died in 1914. Source: Public domain.

Nathan Bedford Forrest, a Colonel at the time of the battle, was relatively unknown in early 1862. However, he would eventually gain fame for his raids into Union territory and be promoted to Lieutenant General. Source: Public domain.

February 13th saw additional skirmishes, as several Union brigade commanders decided to ignore Grant’s order to avoid an engagement during the day and probe the Confederate lines. Though the reconnaissance mission was short, the Union suffered many killed on the first day. Additionally, Union gunboats bombarded the fort, though at least one, the Carondelet, was damaged by a 128-pound projectile that penetrated through both sides of the boat and detonated in the water on the other side.[6] That night, snow fell, leaving several inches on the ground. Temperatures plummeted below 12 degrees Farrenheit. Making matters worse, commanders on both sides forbade fires for fear that it would give their positions away, leaving the soldiers to shiver through the night.[7] The following morning, Foote’s seven gunboats moved towards Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River. Composed of four ironclads, the USS St. Louis, the USS Carondelet, the USS Louisville, and the USS Pittsburg, as well as three timberclads, the USS Conestoga, the USS Tyler, and the USS Lexington, the warships were confident- just days earlier, their guns had forced Fort Henry to surrender relatively quickly.[8] Their hopes were quickly dispelled when the Confederate batteries opened fire. Over the course of an hour and a half, the gunboats dueled with the riverine artillery, with several becoming severely damaged in the process. Eventually Foote’s ships retreated back from where they had come.[9] In a report following the bombardment, Foote wrote:

“… I made an attack on Fort Donelson yesterday, the 14th instant, at 3 o’clock p.m. with four iron clad and two wooden gunboats, the St. Louis, Carondelet, Louisville, and Pittsburg, with the Tyler and Conestoga, and after a sever fight of an hour and a half, being in the latter part of the action less than 400 yards from the fort, the wheel of this vessel, by a shot through her pilot-house, was carried away, and the tiller-ropes of the Louisville also disabled by a shot, which rendered the two boats wholly unmanageable. They then drifted down the river, the relieving tackles not being able to steer or control them in the rapid current. The two remaining boats, the Pittsburg and Carondelet, were also greatly damaged between wind and water, and soon followed us, as the enemy rapidly renewed the fire as we drifted helplessly down the river. This vessel, the St. Louis, alone received 59 shoots, 4 between wind and water and one in the pilot-house, mortally wounding the pilot and others… There were 54 killed and wounded in this attack…”[10]

Foote's gunboats exchanging "iron valentines" with the Confederate batteries during the afternoon of February 14th. Source: www.nps.gov

With Foote’s gunboats out of action, it fell to Grant’s troops to take the fort. Early on the morning of February 15th, before the Union could attack, the Confederates seized the iniative and mounted their own attack. Brigadier General McClernand’s division took heavy losses and was driven back from their positions.[11] Curiously though, just as it seemed that the Confederates were close to breaking through the Union lines entirely, Brigadier General Gideon Pillow called his attack to a halt. In the time that the Confederates paused, the Union struck back. Brigadier General Lew Wallace, though unable to communicate with Grant, ordered his division to counter-attack and drove the southerners back to their lines with heavy casualties. At this point, Grant reappeared on the battlefield and ordered Brigadier General C.F. Smith to attack the Confederate lines opposite his position. Smith’s men quickly overwhelmed the southerners in his sector and took a large portion of the earthworks in the area. His attack was stopped by the onset of darkness.[12]

Union soldiers approach the Confederate earthworks of Fort Donelson in this 19th Century illustration. Source: Public domain.

The situation at Fort Donelson on the afternoon of February 15. Source: Public domain.

During the night, the Confederate commanders discussed their options. Their best chance to get most of their men out had been lost when their attack had foundered earlier in the day. During the early hours of the morning, a then-relatively unknown cavalry commander, Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest, reported to the Confederate headquarters:

“During the conversation that then ensued among the general officers General Pillow was in favor of trying to cut our way out. General Buckner said that he could not hold his position over half an hour in the morning, and that if he attempted to take his force out it would be seen by the enemy (who held part of his intrenchments), and be followed and cut to pieces. I told him that I would take my cavalryaround there and he could draw out under cover of them. He said that an attempt to cut our way out would involve the loss of three-four. General Floyd said our force was so demoralized as to cause him to agree with General Buckner as to our probable loss in attempting to cut our way out.”[13]

After weighing these considerations, the decision was made to surrender the following day.

Confederate soldiers attempt to break out of their encirclement on February 15th. Initially successful, the attack was called to a halt in mid-afternoon, then was countered by Union forces later in the day. Source: www.nps.gov

Forrest decided that he himself would not surrender and chose to break out with his cavalry unit by crossing Lick Creek, swollen by flood waters[14]. Floyd also slipped away with Pillow and 2,000 men and retreated towards Nashville- he left Bruckner in command to surrender the fort and its garrison. Later in the morning, Buckner sent a message for terms to Grant, asking for terms of surrender. Grant responded, “No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.”[15] Bruckner’s position left him little option, as he reported later.

“My men were in a state of complete exhaustion from extreme suffering from cold and fatigue. The supply of ammunition, especially for the artillery, was being rapidly exhausted; the army was to a great extent demoralized by the retrograde movement. On being placed in command I ordered such troops as could not cross the river to return to their intrenchments, to make at the last moment such resistance as was possible to the overwhelming force of the enemy. But a small portion of the forces had returned to the lines when I received from General Grant a reply to my proposal to negotiate for terms of surrender. To have refused his terms would, in the conditions of the army at the time, have led to the massacre of my troops without any advantage resulting from the sacrifice. I therefore felt it my highest duty to these brave men… to accept the ungenerous terms proposed by the Federal commander…”[16]

Bruckner surrendered Fort Donelson, along with between 12,000-15,000 soldiers, 48 artillery pieces, all of the heavy guns facing the river, and 2,000-4,000 horses.[17] Following the end of the battle, the Union counted 507 killed, 1,976 wounded, over 200 missing or captured. In addition to the 12,000+ captured troops, the Confederates lost 327 killed and 1,127 wounded.[18] The victory at Fort Donelson was the Union’s first major win during the war and would have several important effects. The fort’s capture left the road to Nashville open- several towns downstream along the Cumberland surrendered in the wake of the fort’s fall, and eventually Nashville itself was surrendered without a fight. Just as important was the loss of the Cumberland itself, an important waterway used for transportation in northern Tennessee. Finally, the battle established Grant as a leading general among the north’s commander- he became known as “Unconditional Surrender” Grant thereafter and was promoted to Major General.

The lower battery as seen today. Source: author.

Today, part of the Fort Donelson battlefield is preserved as the Fort Donelson National Battlefield. Originally established in 1928, the fort’s original earthworks have been partially preserved. Both the upper and lower batteries have been preserved, along with the revetments in which they were emplaced. The perimeter wall of the fort has also partially been preserved, though it has eroded considerably in the 155 years since the battle was fought. A number of replica or restored artillery pieces have been set in various places around the wall. Much of the trenchworks dug by the Confederate soldiers are also still in existence, though again erosion has taken its toll on the trenches. In 1933, the Daughters of the Confederacy raised a memorial dedicated to fallen Confederate soldiers; this monument stands near the park’s entrance. The National Park Service has a visitor’s center located near the entrance as well, though at the time of this writing the building is currently closed for renovations. The NPS has also erected numerous placards discussing the history of the fort, its batteries, as well as the various sites of defensive positions and offensive actions. Also preserved outside of the park is the Dover Hotel, where the formal surrender took place, and the Fort Donelson National Cemetery, which currently serves as the final resting place of hundreds of Union soldiers and sailors who were reinterred at the site following the war. While none of the original structures of the interior remain, the remnants of the earthworks and the battery positions stand as a reminder of the battle that took place in early 1862 and played such a pivotal role early in the war.

A side-angle shot of the lower battery, demonstrating the elevation of the guns above the Cumberland River. Source: Author.

The row of guns consisting of the lower battery, each with its own revetment. Source: Author.

The ammunition bunker for the lower battery, situated to the rear of that position, still exists but is not available for public access.

A number of artillery pieces are positioned around the fort, indicating the former positions of the outer earthworks. Source: Author.

One of the only structures inside the fort today is a replica of the kind of cabins that Confederate soldiers would have lived in during the winter of 1861-1862. Source: Author.

Outside of the actual location of the fortress, the former trench positions remain preserved, albeit somewhat eroded. Source: Author.

This fence and slight hill were the former positions of Brig. Gen. Simon Bruckner's defensive positions. Source: Author.

The Confederate Soldiers Memorial, erected in 1933 by the Daughters of the Confederacy. Source: Author.

The Fort Donelson National Cemetery, where over 600 Union dead are buried. Source: Author.

The Cemetery keeper's house, situated in the middle of the cemetery. Source: Author.

The Dover Hotel, site of the signing of the surrender for Fort Donelson. Source: Author.

Sources

1. Cooling, Benjamin F. "National Park Civil War Series: The Campaign for Fort Donelson." National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, 2008. Web. 24 Jan. 2017. https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/index.htm

2. "The Battle of Fort Donelson Summary & Facts." Civil War Trust. Civil War Trust, 2014. Web. 24 Jan. 2017. http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts

3. "Civil War Academy." Civil War Academy - American Civil War. Civil War Academy.com, 2007. Web. 24 Jan. 2017. http://www.civilwaracademy.com/fort-donelson.html

4. "Foote's Fort Donelson's OR." Foote's Fort Donelson's OR. CivilWarTalk Network, 11 Jan. 2009. Web. 24 Jan. 2017. http://www.civilwarhome.com/donelson.html

5. United States. National Park Service. "The Battle." National Parks Service. U.S. Department of the Interior, n.d. Web. 24 Jan. 2017. https://www.nps.gov/fodo/planyourvisit/thebattleforfortdonelson.htm

[1] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec2.htm 19 JAN 2017

[2] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

[3] http://www.civilwaracademy.com/fort-donelson.html 17 JAN 2017

[4] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

[5] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec7.htm 21 JAN 2017

[6] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec8.htm 21 JAN 2017

[7] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec9.htm 21 JAN 2017

[8] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

[9] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec9.htm 21 JAN 2017

[10] http://www.civilwarhome.com/footefortdonelson.html 17 JAN 2017

[11] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

[12] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

[13] http://www.civilwarhome.com/forresft.html 17 JAN 2017

[14] https://www.nps.gov/fodo/planyourvisit/thebattleforfortdonelson.htm 17 JAN 2017

[15] https://www.nps.gov/fodo/planyourvisit/thebattleforfortdonelson.htm 17 JAN 2017

[16] http://www.civilwarhome.com/buckner.html 17 JAN 2017

[17] https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/civil_war_series/13/sec11.htm 22 JAN 2017

[18] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/fort-donelson.html?tab=facts 17 JAN 2017

November 23, 2016

Film Review: Hacksaw Ridge

November 23, 2016/ Seth Marshall

By Seth Marshall

In his first film since Apocalypto (2006), director Mel Gibson has made a biopic about the first consciencious objector to win the Medal of Honor, Desmond Doss.

Before going into the review of the film, some context is required. Doss won the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Battle of Okinawa. The last major campaign of World War II, Okinawa became the bloodiest battle of the war for American forces. Okinawa is situated some 350 miles south of the Japanese mainland. Okinawa was viewed as a necessary stepping stone to an invasion of Japan itself. The island had several airfields that would place allied aircraft much closer to Japan than bases in the Mariana islands and China- it could also be used as a staging location for ground and naval forces prior to an invasion.[1] Okinawa would also be the first island with a large Japanese civilian population- before the war, some 500,000 civilians were living on Okinawa.[2] However, the island was heavily defended by some 150,000 Japanese forces, including 77,000 soldiers with the 32nd Army under the command of General Mitsuru Ushijima were reinforced with 20,000 “Boeitai”- Okinawa Home Guard conscriptees who were to be used for labor and support tasks. Additionally, 750 school boys were formed into a group called the “Tekketsu Kinnotai” –the “Blood and Iron Corps.”[3][4] The bulk of these forces were concentrated on the southern portion of the island, where a combination of rugged mountainous terrain and dense dug-in defensive preparations would make the area extremely difficult for American forces to take.

The landing zones of the Tenth Army and Marine forces during the invasion of Okinawa.

The American movements during the Battle of Okinawa from April 1-June 23, 1945

Against the Japanese defenders, the Americans assembled a combine Army and Marine force of 183,000 men, supported by numerous warships and aircraft from the Navy’s Task Force 58. The invasion, which began on April 1, 1945, was preceeded by a seven-day bombardment by both naval guns and aircraft.[5] The initial landings encountered only light resistance, and by the end of the first day, several airfields had been taken further inland. It wasn’t until April 4th that the Army’s XXIV Corps began encountered the well-prepared Japanese defenses further south. The Marines continued to push north, advancing relatively quickly until April 13th until they reached Mt Yae Take. After four days of fighting, the Marines had secured the northern end of Okinawa. In the south, fierce fighting continued to slow the American advance. Despite the Americans’ overwhelming superiority in firepower, the Japanese were able to maintain their line by retreating to underground bunker before reoccupying their previous positions. It was not until the night of April 23-24 that the Japanese withdrew from the first defensive line to their second. The high casualties being inflicted on the American forces prompted the movement of the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions into the front line, while the Army pulled its 27th Infantry Division off the line to make room for the reinforcements. That same day, the Japanese mounted an ill-advised counterattack. The Japanese 24th Infantry Division attacked the American lines in front of the 7th and 77th Infantry Divisions, and were met with intense fire. The counter-attack failed; some 7,000 Japanese soldiers were killed in the failed counterattack. It was in the weeks following this counterattack that Desmond Doss performed the actions which would earn him the Medal of Honor.

Several Marines carefully watch a Okinawan civilian surrendering.

An F4U Corsair drops napalm on a Japanese position while operating in close air support of Marine forces on the ground.

A Stinson L-5 light observation plane flies over the ruins of Naha, the largest city on Okinawa. Aircraft such as these operated as airborne artillery spotters.

In addition to the intense action on land, the Japanese launched both aircraft and ships against the American fleet. During the battle, hundreds of kamikaze planes were sent towards US ships, each driven by the desire to crash into an American warship. On April 6th, 400 Japanese planes took off from Kyushu in the Japanese home islands- some 300 were shot down by American planes and anti-aircraft fire.[6] The following day, the last sortie by the Imperial Japanese Navy was undertaken. In an effort to provide relieve to their forces on Okinawa, the IJN sent the super battleship Yamato, the heavy cruiser Yahagi, and eight destroyers on what amounted to a one-way mission known as Operation Ten-Go. With not enough fuel for a return trip, it was decided that Yamato would expend its main gun ammunition on the invasion forces before beaching itself, after which its crew would fight on foot. En route, the task force was attacked by waves of aircraft from the US fleet. Hit by numerous 1,000lbs bombs and deadly torpedoes, the Yamato finally capsized at 2:23PM after a massive internal magazine explosion. 2,500 of her crew went down with the ship, with only 269 survivors being saved. The remainder of the force suffered no better- Yahagi was hit by seven torpedoes and twelve bombs and sunk with heavy loss of life, and four of the eight destroyers were also sunk. For this success, the Americans lost 10 aircraft with 12 aircrew killed.[7] Kamikaze attacks continued through April, resulting in the loss of 1,100 aircraft. Towards the end of May, 896 kamikaze raids were launched at the American fleet and at captured airfields. In the end, nearly 4,000 planes were shot down by either anti-aircraft fire or fighter patrols. [8]

The Yamato's magazines explode due to internal fires- she sank with the majority of her crew.

Doss was born in 1919 in Lynchburg, Virginia. Brought up as a Seventh-day Adventist, Doss’ religious beliefs in non-violence was cemented early in his life when he witnessed his father point a gun at his uncle. Doss’ mother put a stop to the confrontation by calling the police and telling Doss to hide the gun, but the event had a substantial impact on the young Doss, who thereafter vowed to never touch another gun.[9] In April 1942, he was drafted into the Army. Although he had worked in a shipyard and would have been eligible to stay there as a defense worker, he chose to go into the Army as a conscientious objector instead. Following a contentious period of training, Doss was assigned to the 307th Infantry Regiment, 77th Infantry Division and sent to the Pacific. While the film only shows Doss’ actions on Okinawa, he also served on Guam and Leyte. During this time, he earned a Bronze Star and a Purple Heart for his actions and for wounds sustained.[10]

Desmond Doss following the end of the war.

On April 28th, 1945, after securing Ie Shima Island, the 77th Division replaced the 96th Division in the line on Okinawa.[11] On May 1, Doss’ company scaled a 400 foot-high ridge known as Maeda Escarpment. His unit took heavy casualties from artillery, mortar and machinegun fire and withdrew. Doss, however, stayed behind. He later recalled, “I had these men up there and I shouldn’t leave ‘em… They were my buddies, some of the men had families, and trust me. I didn’t feel like I should value my life above my buddy’s. So I decided to stay with them and take care of as many as I could. I didn’t know how I was gonna do it.” After fashioning a sling with what rope he could find, Doss spent the next 12 hours saving as many men as a he could, lowering them one at a time to safety. By Doss’ own estimation, he eventually saved some 50 men. His commander wanted to credit him with saving 100, so the compromise figure of 75 was reached for his Medal of Honor citation. After returning from the ridge, Doss participated in the final attack on the Maeda Escarpment on May 5th. Though the day was a Saturday and therefore the Sabbath, Doss agreed to forgo his normal practice of no work to take part in the attack, as he was the sole remaining medic in his company. However, he successfully requested that the assault be delayed in order for him to read his Bible and pray. [12]

Doss stands at the top of Maeda Escarpment after placing cargo nets on the side of the cliff- Doss was one of the volunteers who carried the net to the top.

Members of the 77th Infantry Division during a rainstorm on Okinawa.

Several weeks later, on May 21, Doss was treating wounded soldiers when a hand grenade landed in the foxhole he was in. “They begin to throw these hand grenades… I saw it comin’. There was three other men in the hole with me. They were on the lower side, but I was on the other side lookin’ when they threw the thing. I knew there was no way I could get at it. So I just quickly took my left foot and threw it back to where I though the grenade might be, and throw my head and helmet to the ground. And not more than half a second later, I felt like I was sailin’ through the air. I was seein’ stars I wasn’t supposed to be seein’, and I knew my legs and body were blown up.”[13] Riddled with shrapnel, Doss was evacuated from the battlefield.

The Battle of Okinawa would finally come to an end nearly a month after Doss was wounded. On the morning of June 22, General Ushijima committed seppuku along with his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Cho. After 82 days, the battle was over.[14] It was the costliest battle of the Pacific War for the United States- over 12,000 US servicemen were killed and nearly 37,000 wounded. The Navy sustained its heaviest casualties for a single battle during the war- 4,907 killed or missing, with 4600 wounded, along with 36 ships sunk and 368 damaged- a result of the intense kamikaze attacks.[15] Among the dead was General Simon Buckner, commander of the Tenth Army, killed on June 18th by an artillery shell.[16] However, Japanese losses were even more appalling- 107,000 killed, 7,400 taken prisoner, and 20,000 missing, possibly incinerated.[17] The worst losses were suffered by Okinawa civilians, of whom some 100,000 died during the battle.[18] The consideration of the battle’s ferocity ultimately played a factor in the US’ decision to drop the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945.

After the war ended, Doss was sent back to the US. On October 12th, 1945, he was presented the Medal of Honor by President Harry S. Truman. The war had taken a toll on Doss though. For five and a half years after the war he was in and out of hospitals attempting to recover from both his wounds and from tuberculosis which he had contracted on Leyte. Eventually, five of his ribs and one of his lungs were removed before he was finally released from the hospital in August 1951. He eventually became deaf, as a result he believed from the antibiotics that the military continued to prescribe to him. He received a disability pension from the military, but struggled to make ends meet. His wife took a full time job as a nurse, while worked a variety of odd-jobs including cabinet-making, fish farmer, salesman, and maintenance technician. In 1991,his wife was diagnosed with breast cancer. In November that year, Doss and his wife were involved in a car accident as he was driving her to a treatment session- his wife later passed away from injuries suffered in the crash. Doss remarried in 1993 to Francis Duman- they remained together until his death in 2006 at the age of 87.

President Harry Truman awards Doss the Medal of Honor on October 12, 1945.

The film Hacksaw Ridge, which released on November 4th, is Mel Gibson’s first directorial effort since his 2006 film Apocalypto. James Garfield, known best for his roles in the The Social Network and both of the Amazing Spiderman films, stars as Desmond Doss. Supporting cast includes Sam Worthington as Captain Glover, Vince Vaughn as Sergeant Howell, and Hugo Weaving as Doss’ father. For the most part, Gibson has faithfully recreated the actual events surrounding Doss’ life, though there has been artistic license taken, particularly with regard to Doss’ court martial. While it is true that his superiors, including his company commander, Captain Glover, attempted to have him thrown out of the Army, they did not court-martial him. His superiors tried to have him kicked from the Army for “mental instability”, also known as a Section 8. However, when Doss was called to the hearing, he said that he could not accept a Section 8 because of his religion. His superior officers relented. He was also heckled endlessly by other soldiers in his unit, who frequently referred to him as “Holy Jesus” and “Holy Joe”. [19]Other officers tormented him as well- a Captain Cunningham threatened Doss with a court-martial for not completing rifle training. He later would deny Doss passes to see his wife and family. [20]

The other major departure from actuality was how it shows Doss is wounded. The film shows Doss as being wounded by a grenade during the final assault on Maeda Escarpment on May 5th, 1945. However, it was not until the night of May 21st that Doss was wounded, and under circumstances so extraordinary, that the actual events were apparently not included in the film because it was felt by Gibson that the audience would not believe them to be true after having watched him save so many soldiers by himself. After Doss attempted to kick a grenade away from his comrades and was wounded by shrapnel, he waited for five hours for fellow soldiers to reach him with a stretcher. As he was carried away, he saw another soldier more badly wounded than himself and gave up the stretcher for the other man. While waiting for another stretcher to arrive, Doss was wounded again when a sniper’s bullet that caused a compound fracture to his left arm. He used a fallen rifle as a split, then crawled for 300 yards to safety.[21]

Despite these errors, the film is overall a good production. The combat scenes are very intense and of good quality, surprising for a film that was made with only $40 million (for reference ,Saving Private Ryan, released in 1998, was made with $70 million).[22] This being said, it would be a stretch to call this film truly great. It is certainly better than previous movies focusing on the Pacific War, but it seems to have fallen somewhat into the trap which has snared other more recent war films, and that is to make by-the-numbers war film that doesn’t distinguish itself from the pack. Hacksaw Ridge is certainly a movie worth seeing, but not a dramatic trend breaker that differs much from contemporary war films.

Sources

1. Frame, Rudy R., Jr. "MCA&F." Okinawa: The Final Great Battle of World War II | Marine Corps Association. Marine Corps Gazette, Nov. 2012. Web. 23 Nov. 2016

2. Dong, Christopher. "Exploring Okinawa's World War II History." CNN. Cable News Network, 13 Mar. 2015. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

3. "Battle Of Okinawa: Summary, Fact, Pictures and Casualties." HistoryNet. N.p., 04 Aug. 2016. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

4. Tsukiyama, Ted. "THE HAWAI'I NISEI STORY Americans of Japanese Ancestry During WWII." Www.hawaii.edu. Hawaii Nisei Rights Movement, 2006. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

5. Hacksaw Ridge vs the True Story of Desmond Doss, Medal of Honor." HistoryvsHollywood.com. CTF Media, n.d. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

6. Goldstein, Richard. "Desmond T. Doss, Heroic War Objector, Dies." The New York Times. The New York Times Company, 25 Mar. 2006. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

7. US Naval Institute Staff. "Mel Gibson, Vince Vaughn Talk Battle of Okinawa Movie 'Hacksaw Ridge'" USNI News. Unleashed Technologies, 05 Nov. 2016. Web. 23 Nov. 2016.

[1] https://www.mca-marines.org/gazette/2012/11/okinawa-final-great-battle-world-war-ii#

[2] http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/12/travel/okinawa-world-war-ii-travel/

[3] http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-okinawa-operation-iceberg.htm

[4] http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html

[5] http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html

[6] http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html

[7] www.warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/japanese-battleship-yamato-make-its-final-stand/

[8] http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html

[9] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[10] http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/25/us/desmond-t-doss-87-heroic-war-objector-dies.html

[11] www.history.army.mil/html/forcestruc/cbtchron/cc/077id.htm

[12] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[13] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[14] http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-okinawa-operation-iceberg.htm

[15] http://www.cnn.com/2015/03/12/travel/okinawa-world-war-ii-travel/

[16] http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-okinawa-operation-iceberg.htm

[17] www.historylearningsite.co.uk/world-war-two/the-pacific-war-1941-to-1945/the-battle-of-okinawa/

[18] http://nisei.hawaii.edu/object/io_1149316185200.html

[19] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[20] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[21] http://www.historyvshollywood.com/reelfaces/hacksaw-ridge/

[22] https://news.usni.org/2016/11/03/mel-gibson-vince-vaughn-talk-movie-hacksaw-ridge

October 29, 2016

Tools of War: F-4 Phantom

October 29, 2016/ Seth Marshall

By Seth Marshall

Designed in the late 1950s, the McDonnell-Douglas F-4 Phantom II became one of the most prolific fighter aircraft of the Cold War. Serving in numerous air forces around the world, the aircraft saw extensive service in a number of large regional conflicts, including the Vietnam War, the Yom Kippur War, and the Iran-Iraq War.

The origins of the F-4 began in the 1950s. Originally, the goal of the program was to increase the performance of the F3H Demon, an aircraft already in the Navy’s inventory. In 1955, the Navy requested that McDonnell provide two YA-H1s, as the F-4 was then referred to, from an all-weather single-seat fighter armed with cannons to an all-weather two-seater fighter armed with missiles and no cannons. The aircraft at this juncture became known by the designation F4H-1. Development continued through the late 1950s and the Phantom made its first flight on May 27, 1958. Soon after its first flight, the new fighter began setting records. On December 6, 1959, it set a new absolute world altitude record of 98,556ft. Less than two years later on December 5, 1961, it set a sustained altitude of 66,443ft over a 25km course.[1] An additional record set in 1961 was the world speed record, set at 1,604 mph on a 15km course.[2]

While the Phantom had begun breaking records, some aerodynamic instability in the design were revealed during flight testing. Before production began, several changes to the original design were implemented. The outer halves of the wings were modified to have a twelve-degree dihedral, meaning that those sections of the wings were angled up twelve degrees. Additionally, flaperons, a type of aileron, and leading-edge slats were added. The horizontal tail surfaces were given a twenty-three-degree anhedral, meaning that the wings were angled downwards, in order to accommodate for the airflow coming from the wing.[3] Following the modifications, the first production F-4s were some of the largest and heaviest fighter aircraft produced up to that time. It was just over 58 feet long from nose to tail, with a wingspan of 38.5 feet, and with a height of 16.5 feet. Powered by two General Electric J79 engines producing 17,900lbs of thrust in afterburner, the production Phantom was capable of a maximum speed of 1450mph. The massive amount of power made the Phantom capable of carrying large amounts of ordnance- up to 16,000lbs of external stores including bombs, missiles, external fuel tanks, and nuclear weapons.[4]

Production began in 1961 with the F-4B. Initially, only the Navy and the Marine Corps bought the Phantom. However, under pressure from Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, who was insisting on standardization across services, the Air Force evaluated a pair of F-4s in 1962. Initially referred to by the Air Force as the F-110 Spectre, the first F-4Cs were delivered to the Air Force in 1963.[5]

Not long after the first F-4s began to arrive in operational units, US involvement in the Vietnam conflict began to dramatically escalate. After several air-to-air engagements, it quickly became apparent that the F-4 had a number of problems. At the time of the Vietnam conflict, air-to-air missiles were still in their infancy and frequently did not work. “Studies showed that 45 percent of Vietnam-era AIM-7s and 37 percent of AIM-9s failed either to launch or lock on, and after evasive maneuvers, the probability of achieving a kill fell to eight percent and 15 percent for the two types, respectively. The Falcon missiles were even worse, and the Pentagon later withdrew them from service.”[6] Additionally, the MiGs that the Phantom encountered in Vietnam were very different types of aircraft. The three designs most commonly seen overVietnam, the MiG-17, MiG-19, and MiG-21 were all developed as interceptor aircraft- they were much lighter, far more maneuverable (particularly in the case of the MiG-17), and armed with several cannons. Consequently, the Phantom had to engage enemy aircraft at subsonic speeds where it was at a disadvantage.[7] Because of the failure of many missiles to lock on to their targets, let alone hit them, as well as the nature of the dogfights taking place in the skies above Vietnam, many pilots found themselves wishing that the Phantom had been equipped with a built-in gun. An interim fix came about in the form of a gun pod suspended under the belly of the aircraft; however, this was a temporary fix, as the gun pod had no gun sight, requiring the pilot to judge aim based on the trajectory of the tracers. Eventually, when it came to designing the F-4E, the 20mm General Electric Vulcan M61 cannon was included.[8]

An F-4 is hit by a SA-2 SAM over Vietnam.

During the Vietnam War, USAF F-4s claimed to have shot down 107 MiGs while losing 33 of their own aircraft. Navy F-4s had a better kill-ration, shooting down 40 MiGs while losing seven. Additionally, Marine Corps F-4 pilots claimed an additional three MiGs shot down. However, MiGs were not the greatest threat to American aircraft over Vietnam- with large numbers of surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) such as the SA-2 and a tremendous amount of AAA guns, 474 F-4s from all branches of service were lost to ground fire. The high loss rate to missiles and AAA fire was due to the increasing usage of the F-4 as a fighter-bomber- supporting friendly troops on the ground in close-air-support missions and interdiction missions brought the Phantoms down to much lower altitudes, making them more susceptible to ground fire.[9] As a result of experience in the Vietnam War, both the Air Force and Navy implemented their own programs to increase pilots’ capabilities to survive a dogfight- the Navy started its Fighter Weapons School, more popularly known as TOPGUN, and the Air Force began incorporating the Red Flag exercise to bolster its existing Weapons School. Additionally, the Air Force worked to improve its Weapon System Evaluation Program (WSEP) to resolve the problems with its air-to-air missiles.

An F-4 Phantom loaded with fuel tanks and four Sparrow missiles patrols the skies above Vietnam.

In the years that followed the Vietnam War, the Phantom was upgraded several times. In the 1970s, F-4Es began to be modified to the F-4G standard in order to make them suitable for the Air Force’s Wild Weasel mission. These types of aircraft were tasked with supression of the radar systems used by enemy anti-air systems. Over thirty years after it was designed, a number of F-4Gs took part in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, carrying out Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) mission to eliminate air defense radars in Iraq. Five years later, the US Air Force became the last branch of the US military to retire the Phantom. However, the F-4 continued to soldier on with the US military in a different role- worn-down Phantoms were converted to target drones (QF-4s) and expended over target ranges. Over 200 F-4s were converted to target drones and continued to be operated until August 2016, when their role was finally taken over by early-model F-16s.[10]

Two F-4G Wild Weasels fly in formation during the 1980s. Phantoms like these eliminated Iraqi radar systems early in the Gulf War conflict, allowing other aircraft to carry out follow on strike missions.

A QF-4 Phantom is expended via air-to-air missile during a test.

While the US military was the primary user of the Phantom, it was by no means the only one. Hundreds of Phantoms flew with over a dozen air forces around the world: Australia, Egypt, Great Britain, Germany, Greece, Iran, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Spain, and Turkey all flew F-4 Phantoms. The two most prolific foreign users of the Phantom were Israel and Iran.

In late December 1968, an agreement was reached to sell 50 F-4s to the Israeli government for $200 million. Eventually, Israel would purchase over 200 F-4s from the US.[11] The Phantom would subsequently take a main role for the IAF during the War of Attrition in the early 1970s and during the Yom Kippur War. The Israeli Phantoms were first involved in combat on July 30, 1970. During a dogfight over the Gulf of Suez, several Phantoms shot down five MiG-21s.[12] During the Yom Kippur War in 1973, Phantoms saw heavy use, frequently engaging in dogfights with Egyptian and Syrian fighters. However, Arab forces had by this time been equipped with large numbers of Soviet-built SAM systems, including the SA-2, and these took a toll on IAF Phantoms- at least 33 were shot down by the missiles.[13] As Israel began purchasing more modern fighters such as the F-15 and F-16 in the late 1970s and early 1980s, IAF Phantoms were increasingly used as strike aircraft rather than fighters. Upgraded through the 1980s, the IAF continued to fly the Phantom until retiring it in 2004.

The largest foreign user of the Phantom was Iran. Prior to the revolution, Iran purchased nearly 230 F-4s of various models. In the 1980s, Iran obtained an additional 23 used Phantoms from the US through the clandestine “Iran-Contra” agreement.[14] These aircraft were procured during the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted from 1980-1988. Iranian F-4s, along with other American-built aircraft purchased prior to the revolution, were heavily relied upon during the conflict with Iraq. The IRIAF’s ability to maintain and successfully operate the fighter came as a surprise of Western intelligence, who did not think that the Iranians had the ability to keep the complex aircraft in the air, particularly given the purge of western-trained pilots and mechanics that had occurred following the revolution.[15] Though precise records are difficult to obtain, it is known the Iranian Air Force used Western-built aircraft to great effect, including the F-4, though it seems the F-14 was Iran’s primary air dominance fighter aircraft. Still, several Iranian F-4 pilots are thought to have shot down several Iraqi aircraft during the war. Nearly 30 years after the end of the Iran-Iraq War, the F-4 remains one of the main aircraft of the IRIAF, and has seen recent action in air strikes against ISIS targets in Iraq.[16] In 2009, it was reported that the IRIAF continues to operate 82 F-4s.[17]

An IRIAF Phantom prepares to land. Though many purges occurred following the revolution in Iran, Iran has successfully maintained its fleet of Phantoms for several decades.

Though it entered service 56 years ago, the F-4 remains in service with several air forces around the world, including Greece, Iran, South Korea, and Turkey. With 5,195 aircraft built, the Phantom is one of the most numerous jet fighter aircraft ever built.[18] Out of the numerous aircraft types that were developed as so-called third generation fighters, perhaps none saw as much action nor as much service as the F-4. It remains today an iconic aircraft of the Cold War.

Sources

1. Dwyer, Larry. "McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II." McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II. N.p., 10 Mar. 2008. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

2. By. "Boeing." : Historical Snapshot: F-4 Phantom II Fighter. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

3. Torrini, Rudolph Emilio. "The F-4 Is a Great Fighter With a Bad Reputation." War Is Boring. N.p., 25 June 2016. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

4. Haskew, Micheal. "Site Navigation." Warfare History Network. Soverign Media, 31 Jan. 2016. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

5. Cenciotti, By David. "USAF QF-4 Phantom Is Shot at by an F-35 with Two AIM-120s during Last Unmanned Mission (and Survives)." The Aviationist. N.p., 31 Aug. 2016. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

6. HistoryNet. "McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Essential Aircraft in the Air Warfare in the Middle East | HistoryNet." HistoryNet. N.p., 13 Apr. 2016. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

7. Goebel, Greg. "[3.0] Phantom In Foreign Service." [3.0] Phantom In Foreign Service. N.p., 01 Jan. 2016. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

8. MacAskill, Ewen. "Ingenuity Keeps Iran's Vietnam-war-era Planes Flying in Fight against Isis." The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 03 Dec. 2014. Web. 29 Oct. 2016.

[1] http://www.aviation-history.com/mcdonnell/f4.html

[2] http://www.boeing.com/history/products/f-4-phantom-ii.page

[3] http://www.aviation-history.com/mcdonnell/f4.html

[4] http://www.boeing.com/history/products/f-4-phantom-ii.page

[5] http://www.aviation-history.com/mcdonnell/f4.html

[6] https://warisboring.com/the-f-4-is-a-great-fighter-with-a-bad-record-f4757f5e91e2#.pk5nn1chv

[7] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/the-f-4-phantom-vs-the-mig-21/

[8] http://www.aviation-history.com/mcdonnell/f4.html

[9] https://warisboring.com/the-f-4-is-a-great-fighter-with-a-bad-record-f4757f5e91e2#.pk5nn1chv

[10] https://theaviationist.com/2016/08/31/usaf-qf-4-phantom-is-shot-at-by-an-f-35-with-two-aim-120s-during-last-unmanned-mission-and-survives/

[11] http://www.historynet.com/mcdonnell-f-4-phantom-essential-aircraft-in-the-air-warfare-in-the-middle-east.htm

[12] http://www.historynet.com/mcdonnell-f-4-phantom-essential-aircraft-in-the-air-warfare-in-the-middle-east.htm