Tools of War: Battleship Mikasa

In the late 19th Century, the Imperial Japanese Navy sought to catch up with more modern navies by constructing modern warships. Lacking its own shipbuilding capacity at that time, it contracted a number of battleships to be constructed in the UK. One of those the Mikasa, became the flagship of Admiral Togo Heihachiro during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. Today, it survives as the world’s last remaining pre-dreadnought battleship.

                                                           By Seth Marshall

            By the late 19th Century, Japan had made great strides towards becoming a globally recognized power. For Japan, an island nation, one of the more critical areas of obtaining this recognition was the modernization of its navy to a standard that would put it on par with European and American navies. To this end, in the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) ordered the construction of six battleships and six armored cruisers. Lacking shipyards of its own capable of constructing such warships, the IJN was forced to outsource the building of these ships to firms in the UK. The IJN Mikasa was the 6th Japanese battleship built in England.[1]

            Mikasa took her name from Mount Mikasa, a mountain in Nara, Japan.[2] Contracted to Vickers Shipbuilding, she was laid down in Barrow-in-Furness on January 24, 1899. She was launched the following year on November 8th, and commissioned on March 1, 1902.[3] When completed, her armament was comprised of four 12-inch guns housed in two turrets, fourteen 6-inch guns, twenty 3-inch guns, and four torpedo tubes.[4] She was 122m in length and had a beam of 23.2m. Her engines, making 15,000 horsepower, drove two propeller shafts that allowed the Mikasa to reach 18 knots. Up to 9 inches of armor gave protection to her crew of 860 officers and men.[5] Following her completion, the Mikasa visited a number of English ports, then made her way to Japan. Her arrival was timely. Tensions between Russia and Japan were rising, and Mikasa quickly became the flagship of Admiral Togo Heihachiro, commander of the IJN. Mikasa did not have to wait long for her first action.

Marshal-Admiral The Marquis Togo Heihachiro. Born on January 27, 1848, in Kagoshima Prefecture, Togo was a member of the Japanese Navy from the age of 15. He spent much of the 1870s studying in England, returning to Japan in 1878. Given various commands and seeing combat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Togo was made Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet in 1903. He held this command through the Russo-Japanese War, and was ultimately made Marshal-Admiral, equivalent in rank to the US Navy's Fleet Admiral. He died on May 30, 1934 at age 86. Photo: Wikipedia.

            On February 9, 1904, Mikasa took part in the Battle of Port Arthur, the Japanese surprise attack on the vital port which opened the Russo-Japanese War. Mikasa was damaged by shellfire from shore installations which wounded several sailors and an officer. The battle ended with several Russian ships suffering damage requiring repairs, but casualties were relatively light for both sides.[6] Mikasa was also involved in the brief action of April 13th, which ended in the death of Russian Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov, along with all hands of his flagship, the battleship Petropavlovsk, which struck a mine.[7] Several months later, on August 10, 1904, the Mikasa saw action during the Battle of the Yellow Sea. With the exception of Tsushima some 9 ½ months later, the Battle of the Yellow Sea was perhaps the largest naval clash during the Russo-Japanese War. Mikasa was hit over twenty times by Russian naval gunfire, which resulted in a large number of casualties and one of the 12-inch gun turrets disabled. Despite this, the Russian Navy sustained serious damage itself. The Russian flagship, Tsarevich, was hit by two Japanese battleship shells nearly simultaneously, which killed Admiral Vitgeft, Makarov’s replacement, as well as the helmsman and much of the personnel manning the bridge. [8] Both sides suffered similar casualties and damaged ships, and both would subsequently retire to their home ports.

Japanese warships exchange fire with the Russian fleet during the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Source: maritimeprofessional.com. 

Mikasa's after turret, damaged in the Battle of the Yellow Sea. Source: National Institute for Defense Studies, Ministry of Defense.

            Mikasa’s most renowned action came the following year in late May during the decisive Battle of Tsushima. Though the battle occurred in May of 1905, the battle was set in motion the previous fall in October, when Vice Admiral Zinovi Rohestvensky was ordered to sail the Second Pacific Squadron to the conflict zone, a voyage covering an unprecedented distance of 18,000 miles.[9] Rohestvensky’s fleet was centered around four new Borodino-class battleships, the Borodino, the Emperor Alexander III, the Orel, and the Kniaz Suvarov. The fleet had an inauspicious voyage made all the more difficult by the limited range of the warships, requiring frequent coaling. Russian crews were inexperienced and given few opportunities to refine their skills, a point driven home early in the voyage on October 22, when the Russian squadron encountered a fleet of fishing trawlers. Thinking they were Japanese ships attempting a torpedo attack, the Russian ships opened fire. Despite firing countless rounds, the Russians succeeded only in sinking a single trawler and damaging one of their own cruisers with friendly fire.[10] Months later, Russian Navy headquarters dispatched the Third Baltic Squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov. This fleet was composed of older vessels; Rohestvensky had initially declined to take these vessels with him, knowing that they would slow him down. Nonetheless, the fleet was dispatched and used the Suez Canal to catch up with the rest of the Russian vessels, finally joining together at Cam Ranh Bay in Indochina.[11] Adding to Rozhestvensky’s worries was the growing displeasure of his crews, who attempted at least one mutiny during the course of the voyage. After an eight month voyage, the Russian fleet finally arrived in the Far East.

The commander of the Russian fleet at the Battle of Tsushima, Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. Born on November 11, 1848 in St. Petersburg, Russia, Rozhestvensky also joined the navy at an early age. He saw action during the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), and afterwards was promoted to various commands before being appointed commander of the Baltic Fleet in 1904. Rozhestvensky commanded his fleet on its ill-fated voyage to the Pacific from 1904-1905. Following his the disaster that befell his ships at Tsushima, he was held prisoner and released at the conclusion of the war. On his return to Russia, he was court-martialed for his defeat and found guilty, though the Tsar would commute his sentence of execution to a short stint in prison. He died of a heart attack on January 14, 1909. Photo: Wikipedia.

The circuitous route of the various components of the Russian fleet on its way to the Pacific Ocean, from 1904-1905. Source: Wikipedia.

            The Battle of Tsushima began soon after. Early on the morning of May 27th, the Japanese auxiliary merchant cruiser Shinano Maru spotted the Russian fleet making its way northeast in the Yellow Sea. The cruiser along with additional scout ships shadowed the Russians throughout the morning, concealing themselves in heavy fog. The Russian Second and Third Baltic Squadrons were composed of the four Borodino-class battleships, four older battleships, three coastal defense battleships, six cruisers, and 26 other warships.[12] Admiral Togo ordered the Japanese fleet to sea at 0615- the Japanese force was made up of four battleships, two armored cruisers, six cruisers, and 30 destroyers. Sailing south from Pusan, Korea, the Japanese sighted the Russians in the Tsushima Strait at 1345 that afternoon.[13] The Russian fleet was arranged roughly in two columns- Togo attempted to “cross the T” of the Russian fleet with the Mikasa, while sending his cruisers to attack from the rear left flank.[14] The Russian flagship Knayaz Suvorov opened fire first, followed shortly thereafter by return fire from the Mikasa. The Japanese maneuver, which subsequently became known as the “Togo turn”, saw the Japanese warships reverse course. This tactic could have backfired for Togo, as his ships all passed through a single point, which ought to have allowed Russian gunners to zero in and hit each Japanese ship in turn. However, the Russians proved unable to consistently hit the Japanese.[15]

            Using a six-knot speed advantage, Togo’s fleet quickly took advantage of the Russians’ inability to hit their targets. Gunfire from Japanese warships sank the battleship Oslyabya and disabled Rohestvensky’s flagship. Rohestvensky himself was incapacitated from a concussion. During the remainder of the day, the battleships Emperor Alexander III and Borodino were lost to Japanese gunfire, and Knayaz Suvorov succumbed to torpedoes. The wounded Admiral Rohestvensky was taken off his flagship by the destroyer Buyny. In the evening, Togo ordered his destroyers to attack the Russians at will. The destroyers fired 74 torpedoes, which sank the battleship Sysoy Veliky and cruisers Admiral Nakhimov and Vladimir Monomakh. Three additional badly-damaged ships were scuttled the following morning by their crews. Only a handful of Russian ships managed to escape- one cruiser-yacht and two destroyers slowly made their way to Vladivostok, while three damaged cruisers fled to Manila, where they were interned for the duration of the war.[16] On May 28th, the Japanese captured the destroyer Buyny, along with Rohestvensky, who surrendered what remained of his fleet. The battle had utterly annihilated the Russian presence in the Pacific- six battleships, four cruisers, and six destroyers were sunk, while another two battleships and several additional ships were captured.[17] Casualties for the Russians were enormous; 4,545 were killed, 6,106 captured, and 1,862 interned. Against these impressive figures, the Japanese had suffered three torpedo boats sunk and several warships damaged- casualties totaled 117 killed and 583 wounded. During the battle, Mikasa had been hit 32 times, suffering 8 dead.[18] The Russian loss was disastrous- less than four months after the battle, the war ended in a mediated peace.

The battleship Knyav Suvorov, Rohestvensky's flagship. Hit countless times by Japanese gunfire, including a hit which incapacitated the admiral with a head wound, the battleship was abandoned and sank. Photo: Wikipedia.

Admiral Togo on the bridge of the Mikasa during the Battle of Tsushima. The original painting now hangs in the lower deck of the Mikasa. Photo: Wikipedia.

            Shortly after the war ended, the Mikasa suffered a disaster. On September 11th, 1905, she was anchored in Sasebo harbor when one of her magazines exploded, blowing open a large hole in her port quarter and killing 339 of her crew. She sank following the explosion, but was later refloated and repaired.[19] By 1908, Mikasa was back in service on coastal defense duties. She remained functioning in this role through World War I until she was decommissioned in 1922. Her decommissioning took place in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty, which limited the tonnage that each nation’s navy could have. Owing to her historical nature however, an effort was made to have the Treaty committee approve her preservation as a museum ship. During the mid-1920s, a campaign was launched to restore the ship, which had deteriorated severely, to her former condition. By 1926, the signatories on the Washington Naval Treaty had acquiesced to the preservation request. On November 12th that year, the Mikasa was unveiled before Crown Prince Hirohito and an elderly Admiral Togo. [20] The warship stayed a museum ship during the interwar period, but was severely neglected in the aftermath of World War II. Mikasa’s guns, funnels, and many topside fixtures were removed as a result of postwar policies. However, in 1955, the Japan Times began a campaign to renovate the warship. The newspaper had been a significant force in getting the warship restored the first time; once again, it worked towards returning the warship towards its former state. With the support of the US Navy and Admiral Chester Nimitz, the warship was refitted with its guns, funnels, and numerous other parts. In 1961, the ship was once again opened as a museum ship. Since then the Mikasa has remained open to the public.

            The author visited the ship in late May 2016 during a trip to Japan. The Mikasa is located in Yokosuka harbor. Tours of the ship are available on a daily basis for the reasonable price of 600 yen- roughly $6. The exterior of the ship has been restored to a grey exterior, with black and white paint around the funnels. The ship’s guns have been returned to their original positions. However, the interior of the ship is not the same as it once was. The topside areas, including pilothouse and radio room, have been restored to close to their original condition, but below-decks is a different story. Only the two decks below the main deck are accessible- the rest were filled in with concrete as part of the terms of the ship being preserved following the Washington Naval Treaty. The deck that is open to the public has largely been converted into a museum, with many models, paintings, display panels, and artifacts relating the ship’s history, the history behind the Russo-Japanese War, and Admiral Togo. There are some exceptions to this, such as Togo’s stateroom, the galley, and the wardroom. Despite the fact that much of the ship has been filled in by concrete and is now inaccessible, the Mikasa is nonetheless important as the last pre-dreadnought battleship in existence. What’s more, the restoration efforts have vastly improved the ship from the condition it was in during the 1950s. Curiously, while the Mikasa is the last example of its type around, one of the few Russian ships to survive the disaster at Tsushima, the cruiser Aurora, also is currently a museum ship, moored at St. Petersburg. However, the Mikasa, as the Japanese flagship in that tremendous battle, has tremendous presence- visitors to the Tokyo area would be well-advised to pay a visit to the old warship.

View of the bow of the Mikasa, as it appears today. This view clearly shows the ship's current location on land, with much of its lower decks filled in with concrete. Additionally, the ship's secondary armament, 14 6.5-inch guns, are evident in this picture. Photo: author.

A view from the battleship's superstructure, looking out over Yokosuka harbor. Much of the Mikasa's upper works are not original, having been stripped following World War II and replaced by reproductions during the post-war restoration. Photo: author.

A typically restored room on board the Mikasa, in this instance the communications room. A number of artifacts are on display with the aid of placards. Photo: author.

The Mikasa had additional armament in the form of four 3.5-inch guns, two on each side. Photo: author.

The bow turret of the Mikasa, with its 12-inch battery. The turret and guns are reproductions put in place during the warship's postwar restoration. Photo: author.

The interior of the Mikasa's main bridge. Photo: author.

One of the Mikasa's secondary 6.5-inch guns. The galleries where these guns are housed have been converted into exhibit space, supported by large text and photographic panels. Photo: author.

Along one of the side corridors on the Mikasa's lower deck is this gallery, which is comprised of models representing many classes of ships and aircraft which have served in the Imperial Japanese Navy and Japanese Self Defense Forces. Photo: author.

One of the many exhibits which are located on the lower deck of the Mikasa. This lower deck has been converted in large part into a museum space. Photo: author.

The main museum area house several very large-scale models of Imperial Japanese Navy ships that served in the Russo-Japanese War. Photo: author.

An officer's bathroom on the lower deck of the Mikasa. Photo: author.

The officer's wardroom on board the Mikasa. The stern cabins of the Mikasa have been the subject of a much more intense restoration effort.

Sources

1.      "Mikasa, Historic Warship." Mikasa, Historic Warship. Mikasa Preservation Society. http://www.kinenkan-mikasa.or.jp/en/index.html . Web . 21 May 2017.

2.      "Museum Ships." Museum Ships. WebOke, 2014. http://museumships.us/japan/mikasa. Web. 21 May 2017.

3.      Morrison, Geoffrey. "Japan's 114-year-old Battleship Mikasa: A Relic of Another Time." CNET. CBS Interactive, 05 Aug. 2016. https://www.cnet.com/news/japans-114-year-old-battleship-mikasa-a-relic-of-another-time/. Web. 21 May 2017.

4.      "Battle of Arthur." The Battle of Port Arthur. Russojapanesewar.com, 2002. http://russojapanesewar.com/index.html. Web. . 23 May 2017.

5.      "The Battle of the Yellow Sea." The Battle of the Yellow Sea. Russojapaneswar.com, 2002. http://russojapanesewar.com/bttl-yellow-sea.html. Web. . 29 May 2017.

6.      Reynolds, Brad. "Warfare History Network." Warfare History Network. Sovereign Media, 3 Mar. 2015. http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/naval-history-the-battle-of-tsushima-in-the-russo-japanese-war/.  Web. 23 May 2017.

7.      Cooper, Tom. "Battle of Tsushima: When Japan and Russia's Most Fearsome Battleships Squared Off." The National Interest. The Center for the National Interest, 29 May 2017. Web. 30 May 2017.

8.      Corkill, Edan. "How The Japan Times Saved a Foundering Battleship, Twice." The Japan Times. Japan Times LTD. Web. 21 May 2017.

[1] http://www.kinenkan-mikasa.or.jp/en/mikasa/index.html 5/21/17

[2] http://museumships.us/japan/mikasa 5/21/17

[3] http://www.kinenkan-mikasa.or.jp/en/mikasa/index.html 5/21/17

[4] https://www.cnet.com/news/japans-114-year-old-battleship-mikasa-a-relic-of-another-time/ 5/21/17

[5] http://www.kinenkan-mikasa.or.jp/en/mikasa/index.html  5/21/17

[6] http://russojapanesewar.com/battle-pa.html 5/23/2017

[7] http://russojapanesewar.com/maka-dies.html 5/23/17

[8] http://russojapanesewar.com/bttl-yellow-sea.html 5/29/17

[9] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/naval-history-the-battle-of-tsushima-in-the-russo-japanese-war/  5/23/17

[10] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/ 5/23/17

[11] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/ 5/23/17

[12] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/ 5/23/17

[13] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/ 5/23/17

[14] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/naval-history-the-battle-of-tsushima-in-the-russo-japanese-war/ 5/23/17

[15] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/ 5/23/17

[16] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/  5/23/17

[17] http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/battle-tsushima-when-japan-russias-most-fearsome-battleships-20896?page=2 5/30/17

[18] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/  5/23/17

[19] http://www.navalofficer.com.au/mikasa/  5/23/17

[20]

Battlefield Visit: Stones River

In an attempt to retake the important city of Nashville, a Confederate army commanded by General Braxton Bragg was engaged by the Union’s Army of the Cumberland, lead by Major General William Rosecrans, near the town of Murfreesboro, Tennessee at the close of 1862. The battle was to be one of the bloodiest of the Civil War.

By Seth Marshall

            As the year of 1862 drew to a close, the situation for the Union was rather bleak. General George McClellan’s Peninsular Campaign had been turned back in Virginia, fought to a costly draw at Antietam, and had met a disastrous defeat at Fredericksburg. And while the Western Theater had not seen similar setbacks, neither had it seen significant progress towards pushing the Confederacy back. Commanders on both sides were under pressure from their governments to change the situation.

            The Union’s Army of the Cumberland was commanded by Major General William Rosecrans. An 1842 graduate of the Military Academy at West Point, Rosecrans replaced Major General Don Carlos Buell, who had been heavily criticized for his failure to pursue Confederate General Braxton Bragg after his defeat at Perryville in October. Rosecrans was concerned about the ability to keep his army supplied during a campaign against the South. His hesitation caused much angst with his superior, Major General Henry Halleck, as well as with President Abraham Lincoln. Halleck wrote Rosecrans:

“The President is very impatient at your long stay in Nashville. The favorable season for your campaign will soon be over. You give Bragg time to supply himself by plundering the very country your army should have occupied. From all information received here, it is believed that he is carrying large quantities of stores into Alabama, and preparing to fall back partly on Chattanooga and partly on Columbus, Miss. Twice I have been asked to designate some one else to command, the Government demands action, and if you cannot respond to that demand some one else will be tried.”[1]

The Union commander was therefore under substantial pressure to counter the Confederate forces in middle Tennessee.

Major General William Rosecrans. An 1842 graduate of West Point, Rosecrans had taken command of the Army of the Cumberland from Major General Don Carlos Buell, who had been criticized for his lack of action.

            Rosecrans opposite number commanding the Confederate forces was General Braxton Bragg. Like Rosecrans, Bragg was a graduate of West Point, a member of the class of 1837. A veteran of the Mexican American War. Known for his highly abrasive personality and tendency to argue with other argues, Bragg was highly disliked by his subordinates. Described by southern diarist Mary Chestnut as having a “winning way of earning everyone’s detestation”[2], Bragg was so disliked by his officers and men that a number of them attempted to have him ousted from his command. However, Bragg was liked by Confederate President Jefferson Davis, and remained in place.

General Braxton Bragg was the commander of the Confederacy's Army of the Tennessee. A West Point graduate from the class of 1837, Bragg was highly suspicious of the members of his staff and extremely disliked. Despite attempts by his staff to remove him, he remained in command of the Army of the Tennessee.

            Bragg made his move before Rosecrans in late 1862. He moved his army to Murphreesboro, 30 miles southeast of Nashville, Rosecrans’ base of operations. He intended to retake Nashville, thus depriving the North of a vital supply hub. However, his attack was delayed by supply shortages as well as reductions in the number of his troops. His delay allowed Rosecrans the time to get his army in order. The day after Christmas, Rosecrans began moving south towards Murphreesboro and arrived in the vicinity of Bragg on December 29th. The following day, both armies prepared to battle one another while the commanders laid their plans. Curiously, both generals planned to assault their opponents rights and roll up the other’s flank. As it transpired, Bragg would be the first to strike.

The tactical situation on December 30, 1862.

            Early on the morning of December 31st, the 43,000 men of Rosecran’s army were either just waking or still sleeping.[3] Despite indications that the Confederate forces were preparing to attack, most Union commanders had not chosen to put their men on alert. Among these commanders was Major General Alexander McCook. He ignored the reports of increased activity and slept on. As a result, two of his divisions were unprepared for the Confederate assault, which began at 6 AM when Major General John McCown’s division led the attack into the Union lines. Most Union soldiers were just waking up and cooking breakfast and were caught by surprise; they did not present serious resistance before falling back. One of the brigades,  2nd Brigade of the 2nd Division, commanded by Brigadier General Edward Kirk, suffered 826 casualties of its 1,933 men, included Kirk himself, who was seriously wounded.[4]

The Confederate attack on the morning of the 31st.

            The sole brigade who was prepared for battle was commanded by then-Brigadier General Phillip Sheridan. Sheridan had woken his men at 4 AM and ensured that they were manning their posts and guns when the Southerners attacked. Sheridan’s division came under attack at around 7 AM and would fight an effective withdrawal under fire fore the next four hours, claiming to having inflicted some 2,000-3,000 casualties while suffering 990 casualties out of its 5,000 men strength.[5] Sheridan’s performance bought the rest of Rosecran’s army time to establish a more defensible position. After he realized the seriousness of the situation, Rosecrans himself led from the front. “He rode all about the battlefield, asking for reports, giving succinct orders, and providing encouragement where needed, and it was much needed on that morning.”[6]

Major General Alexander McCook, commander of the Union's right wing, disregarded reports of Confederate activity along his front and did not order his men to stand to at dawn. As a result, two of his divisions were quickly overrun by the Confederate attack.

            Confederate forces pressed the attack through the morning. Union forces fell back on an area known as Round Forest. Artillery had been brought up  to the Nashville turnpike, and on the approach of Confederate units began to fire as quickly as they could reload, inflicting heavy casualties. The Union continued to absorb heavy losses as well, among them was Rosecrans’ chief of staff, Colonel Julius Garesche, who was decapitated by a cannonball that just missed Rosecrans himself. Rosecrans, splattered with gore from his friend and West Point classmate, continued to lead the Union forces though shaken by Garesche’s violent death. The Union line held, having inflicted serious damage on numerous Confederate units, and the day finally came to an end.[7]

Confederate infantry, taking fire from the Union defensive line along the turnpike, struggle to advance across the cotton fields.

The tactical situation at the end of December 31st, following the Union withdrawal to the turnpike.

            Both sides spent the first day of 1863 licking their wounds. Bragg was surprised that morning to find Rosecrans still in front of his position- the previous night, he had sent a telegram to Jefferson Davis proclaiming: “The enemy has yielded his strong position and is falling back. God has granted us a happy New Year.” On January 2nd, Bragg discovered that the Union had occupied a hilltop on his right. Desiring the terrain for his own artillery, Bragg ordered division commander Major General John Breckenridge to take the position. Breckenridge, aware of how difficult it would be to take such a strong position, protested the order, but Bragg overruled him. At 3PM, Breckenridge began massing his men in preparation for his attack. [8] Across the river, Breckenridge’s preparations had not gone unnoticed, and Rosecrans set about placing 58 guns in two positions to provide defensive fire. [9]

Confederate Major General John Breckenridge was very reluctant to mount the charge proposed by Bragg. Despite his protests, Bragg ordered him to carry out the attack.

Breckenridge's Division attacks the Union position atop a hill next to the river.

            One hour later, Breckenridge began his attack. Though the Union infantry put up a fierce fight, Breckenridge successfully overwhelmed their position an survivors began falling back across the river, taking refuge behind the line of artillery. Breckenridge’s initial attack had taken 400 prisoners and several flags. Across the river, Colonel John F. Miller, commanding a brigade from Negley’s Division, ordered his men to hold their fire until the retreating Union infantry passed through their lines. At this point, Breckenridge ordered his men to continue their attack, and they charged across the river- straight into the line of artillery and infantry. The Union guns poured fire into the charging Confederates and inflicted terrible casualties. One Confederate soldier later wrote:

“The nearest the Yankees came to getting me was shooting a hole in my pants and cutting my hair off my right temple. I know a peck of balls pass in less than a yard of me… The man in front of me got slightly wounded… the one on my right mortally and the one on my left killed.”

Union forces counterattack following the destruction of Breckenridge's Division.

The Confederate charge, which had been a success just minutes earlier, became a disaster. In less than an hour, Breckenridge’s division suffered 1800 killed or wounded.[10] As their attack fell apart, Miller ordered his men forward and swept the remaining Southerners back across the river and fields which they had just taken, capturing several Confederate guns and prisoners in the process. Eventually, Miller ordered his men back to their original position, where they remained until relieved.[11] As the survivors of Breckenridge’s attack made their way back to Southern positions, Breckenridge was reduced to tears, crying “My poor Orphans! My poor Orphans! My poor Orphan Brigade! They have cut it to pieces.”[12]

Breckenridge's Division, having sustained 1800 killed or wounded in less than an hour at the hands of 58 Union guns, retreat back across the river.

            The annihilation of Breckenridge’s assault effectively ended the battle. Skirmishing would continue through the remainder of the 2nd and into the 3rd, but Bragg’s forces had taken serious losses, and with Union forces certain to receive reinforcements from Nashville, their position was untenable. On the night of the 2nd, Bragg met with his subordinates and agreed to retreat 36 miles south to Tullahoma, where the Army of Tennessee would go into winter quarters. Bragg suffered 10, 266 casualties, including over 1300 killed and 7900 wounded- these losses represented 27 percent of his army. The Army of the Cumberland suffered 13,200 casualties, including 1700 killed, 7800 wounded, and 3700 wounded- a 31 percent casualty rate. These casualty figures made the Battle of Stones River one of the bloodiest of the war.[13] Though a costly win, Rosecrans’ victory at Stones River secured Middle Tennessee for the Union for the remainder of the war. President Lincoln would later write to Rosecrans, remarking of the battle, “I can never forget, if I remember anything, that at the end of the last year and the beginning of this, you gave us a hard-earned victory, which had there been a defeat instead, the country instead, the country scarcely could have lived over.”[14] On January 4th, Rosecrans entered Murphreesboro and began constructing what eventually became known as Fortress Rosecrans, an enormous supply base with a large garrison and protected by numerous artillery batteries, to provide a forward staging base for continued operations in Tennessee.

            Today, the area where the battle was fought has been preserved by the National Park Service. Established as a National Battlefield in 1927, the park incorporates much of the area over which the events of December 31, 1862- March 2, 1963 occurred. While the town of Murphreesboro has grown substantially in the intervening 150 years and portions of the former battlefield have been commercialized, the park includes a substantial portion of the ground over which the initial Confederate attack took place on December 31st. At the center of the park is a visitor center, which includes a small museum dedicated to explaining the events of the battle and sharing personal stories from the individuals who fought there. Numerous artifacts including a cannon, small arms, clothing, and personal artifacts are included in the exhibits. Across the street, a cemetery serves as the final resting place for many of the soldiers who fell during the battle, and a large memorial stands at its center. Visitors can follow miles of paths and retrace tactical movements of units during the battle, which are enumerated on by several placards placed around the battlefield. Also part of the park is the oldest Civil War monument in existence, the Hazen Brigade Monument, which was built in 1863. Not far outside of the park is the remains of Fortress Rosecrans, of which several earthen bastions remain standing- one of the large portions of the former defensive position has been incorporated into a separate park- many of the earthworks where Union guns once occupied remain and are accessible to visitors by wooden boardwalks. With these preservation efforts in place, Stones River National Battlefield is one the best preserved battlefields in the former Western Theater.

The entrance to Stones River National Battlefield.

Cannons mark the edge of one of the fields through which Confederate troops advanced.

An area known as the Slaughter Pen- Union troops held out here among the limestone outcroppings as long as they could, until Sheridan's troops ran out of ammunition and forced the troops here to retreat along with them.

Trenches remain from the positions that were occupied by the Pioneer Brigade.

A road and pedestrian path wind through the cotton field- the scene of the last Confederate assaults on December 31st- the Union had dug in along the turnpike, the position of which would be along the right side of this picture.

It was at this position that 58 Union guns were assembled and inflicted terrible losses against Breckenridge's Division during its attack on January 2nd. 

A monument marks the spot where Union artillery halted Breckenridge's attack.

A monument to the Union dead who are buried in this cemetery stands at its center. 

The oldest remaining Civil War monument stands at the former site of a battery of Union artillery, which was in part responsible for repelling the final Confederate attacks on the 31st. 

Inside the remains of Fortress Rosecrans, one of the largest fortifications constructed during the war. The rises on the left are what remain of the walls. 

Sources

1.      "The Battle of Stones River Summary & Facts." Civil War Trust. Civil War Trust. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.

2.      Cist, Henry. "The Battle of Stone's River (Union View)." The Battle of Stone's River (Union View). Civilwarhome.com, 1997. Web. 11 Apr. 2017

3.      Cheeks, Robert. "Battle Of Stones River." HistoryNet. Wieder History Group, 29 Aug. 2006. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.

4.      Cheeks, Robert. "Battle of Stones River: Philip Sheridan's Rise to Millitary Fame." HistoryNet. Wieder History Group, 12 June 2006. Web. 11 Apr. 2017

5.      Thompson, Robert. "New Year's Hell." Civil War Trust. Civil War Trust, 2014. Web. 11 Apr. 2017

6.      "The Soldiers and the Battle of Stones River." Www.nps.gov. National Park Service, 02 June 2008. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.

7.      "A Hard-Earned Victory." National Park Service. National Park Service, n.d. Web. 11 Apr. 2017.

[1] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/stones-river.html?tab=facts

[2] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/stones-river.html?tab=facts

[3] http://www.civilwarhome.com/stonesriverunion.html

[4] http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-stones-river.htm

[5] http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-stones-river-philip-sheridans-rise-to-millitary-fame.htm

[6] http://www.civilwarhome.com/stonesriverunion.html

[7] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/stonesriver/stones-river-history/new-years-hell-1.html

[8] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/stonesriver/stones-river-history/new-years-hell-1.html

[9] http://www.civilwarhome.com/stonesriverunion.html

[10]https://web.archive.org/web/20080602203526/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/40stones/40facts1.htm

[11] http://www.civilwarhome.com/stonesriverunion.html

[12] http://www.civilwar.org/battlefields/stonesriver/stones-river-history/new-years-hell-1.html

[13]https://web.archive.org/web/20080602203526/http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/40stones/40facts1.htm

[14] https://www.nps.gov/stri/learn/historyculture/aftermath.htm

Tools of War: P-51 Mustang

In need of fighter aircraft in 1940, Britain contacted North American Aviation about the possibility of producing Curtiss P-40 aircraft under license. Believing that they could create a better product, North American designed and built an entirely new fighter in less than four months. The result, the P-51 Mustang, became an icon of military aviation and one of the most successful fighter designs created.

By Seth Marshall

                By the spring of 1940, it had become apparent to the British that the attrition rate of their fighter aircraft over the Western Front and other theaters was going to be higher than the British aircraft industry was able to cope with. Pre-war orders for foreign aircraft were not uncommon, and the practice only increased following the outbreak of the war. Having previously ordered large numbers of Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, then the most modern US fighter, the British Air Purchasing Commission was searching for other American aircraft companies that could produce the aircraft under license. In April 1940, the Commission contacted North American Aviation, a relatively new company in the American market.[1] While the British were hoping to obtain more P-40s, the president of the company, James H. Kindelberger, said that his company could design a new aircraft built around the same engine powering the Warhawk, the Allison V-1710. The British eventually agreed to the proposal, and design work began immediately.[2]

The NA-73 prototype following the installation of its engine. Surprisingly, this aircraft still exists and is currently on display at the EAA Museum at Oshkosh, Wisconsin. Source: Wikipedia.

                What would become the P-51 was initially referred to as the NA-73X. The chief designer of the new aircraft was Edgar Schmued, a German emigrate who had arrived in the US in 1930. Also on the design team was Edward Horkey, an aerodynamics specialist. The team came up with an airframe to fit around the Allison engine that differed greatly from the Warhawk. The design team strove to make the plane as aerodynamically clean as possible to increase speed. Additionally, in a break from conventional wing designs of the time, the NA-73X was given a laminar flow wing. In previous designs, the wing’s maximum thickness was achieved close to the leading edge of the wing. The laminar flow wing, by contrast, positioned the thickest section of the wing more towards the halfway point of the wing, reducing turbulent airflow across the wing. This had the combined effect of increasing speed and range.[3] Additionally, the Mustang featured squared wingtips, which were found to have slightly less drag in wind tunnel testing than contemporary rounded wingtips.[4] On September 9, 1940, 102 days after North American had signed its contract with the British, the NA-37X was rolled out of the factory- a remarkably short period of design and initial construction even in that period- minus its engine and armament. The engine arrived in October, and on the 26th of that month, the prototype made its first flight and achieved a speed of 382mph, 25mph faster than the P-40.[5]

A P-51A, one of the first delivered to the British. Red roundels on the stars indicate this photograph was likely taken in late 1941 or early 1942, before the marking was deleted from US insignia. The camouflage pattern is British, painted at the factory by North American. Source: Wikipedia.

                It was not until May 1, 1941 that the second aircraft, the first production model, was rolled out. By this time, the new fighter had acquired the name “Mustang” from the British. The third Mustang was shipped to Britain in the fall of 1941 and made its first flight on October 26th after being equipped with VHF radio, a gunsight, and other equipment. Testing continued to take place through late 1941 and early 1942 with the Air Fighting Development Unit located at RAF Duxford.[6] During this time, RAF pilots found that while the Mustang was fast and highly maneuverable, its performance degraded at altitudes above 15,000 feet, due to the Allison engine not functioning as well at higher altitudes. While this made the Mustang Mark I (the British used Marks to differentiate models instead of letters, which was preferred by the USAAF) unsuitable for interception and escort missions, the RAF accepted the aircraft for use as a photo-reconnaissance plane and tactical fighter bomber. The first Mustang Is began arriving in RAF squadrons in early 1942, with the first missions taking place that spring. The first operational loss of a Mustang occurred over France in July 1942, and the fighter scored its first kill on August 19, 1942, when an American pilot flying for the Royal Canadian Air Force, Hollis H. Hillis, shot down a German fighter in support of the ill-fated Dieppe raid.[7]

This P-51A is one of the production versions ordered to British standard, evident by the four Hispano 20mm cannons which arm this aircraft, rather than the normal six .50 caliber machine guns. Some of these aircraft were retained by the USAAF. Source: Wikipedia.

                Not long after North American had signed its contract with the British to produce the Mustang, the United States Army Air Corps (known after mid-1941 as the United States Army Air Forces) agreed to let exports of the Mustang proceed on the condition that North American deliver two planes to the USAAC for evaluation. Subsequently, the ninth and tenth Mustangs built were given to the USAAC and redesignated as XP-51s. After a period of evaluation, the USAAF decided to order 310 P-51As and 300 A-36As, dive-bomber variants of the P-51A with dive-brakes and bomb racks beneath the wings, in 1942. Additionally, a number of Allison-engined Mustangs were converted to F-6As, the USAAF photo-reconnaissance version of the fighter. The went into action with the USAAF in March 1943, when three dozen F-6As with the 111th and 154th Observation Squadrons arrived in Tunisia to provide reconnaissance support during the closing stages of the North African campaign.[8] Other P-51As would see combat elsewhere in the Mediterranean Theater as well as in the China-Burma-India Theater.[9]

                While the P-51A was a definite improvement over the P-40 Warhawk, it was felt that better performance could be gained through the substitution of a different powerplant. In 1942, four Mustangs were modified by the British to use the Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the same engine that powered the Supermarine Spitfire of Battle of Britain fame, as well as the DeHavilland Mosquito and Avro Lancaster. American engineers performed similar tests with two Mustangs powered by Packard-built Merlin engines.[10] In order to accommodate the power of the new engine, which boasted 1,695hp, the airframe was strengthened; the radiator, located on the belly of the aircraft, was deepened, and the carburetor was moved from on top of the nose to below it.[11] The results revolutionized the Mustang’s performance. Speed was increased to 426mph at 24,000ft.[12] Tests comparing the Mustang to the Spitfire demonstrated that the Mustang had far greater range and now had excellent high altitude performance.[13] The newly-redesigned Mustang arrived at an apt time for the USAAF.

A Merlin-engined P-51B Mustang in flight. This aircraft uses the earlier framed canopy, which was replaced by the Macolm hood, a rounded Plexiglas canopy that omitted metal frames and allowed for increased visibility. Source: Wikipedia.

                In 1942, the USAAF had begun its daylight bombing campaign against Germany. Convinced that daylight precision bombing was the proper way to wage aerial warfare against the Germans, the USAAF had begun sending its heavy bombers deep into Reich territory. However, earlier USAAF and RAF fighters, namely the P-47 Thunderbolt and Spitfire, lacked the range to escort the bombers all the way to their targets; upon reaching the German frontier, the friendly escorts were forced to turn back for their bases. It was after this point that Luftwaffe fighters attacked the bomber formations. During 1943, losses increased steadily, culminating in the second raid on the ball-bearing production facilities at Schweinfurt, Germany on October 14, 1943. Known thereafter as Black Thursday, out of the 350 heavy bombers sent to attack both Schweinfurt, 60 B-17s were shot down by fighter attacks over Europe, another five had crashed in England and 17 were written off on their return as too badly damaged to ever fly again. With a mission loss rate of 26%, the second Schweinfurt raid was the costliest raid the Eighth Air Force mounted- in return, the Luftwaffe had lost around 40 fighters to the guns of the bomber formation.[14] With the losses on Black Thursday as well as preceding raids, the Eighth Air Force was forced to put its bomber offensive on hold until replacement aircraft could arrive and more adequate fighter protection be provided.

                With the introduction of the Merilin-powered Mustang, the solution to the problem of fighter escort had arrived. Carrying two releasable drop-tanks full of fuel, Mustangs were capable of escorting the bombers all the way to their targets and back. Despite this, the first USAAF P-51Bs to arrive in England were assigned to the 354th Fighter Group with the Ninth Air Force in October 1943, which was slated to primarily function in the tactical role during upcoming operations.[15] Eventually, it was decided that most of VIII Fighter Command’s squadrons would be equipped with the P-51- squadrons already equipped with the P-47 and P-38 would eventually transition to the new Mustang. The Ninth Air Force would ultimately be equipped primarily with P-47s, which were better suited to the ground-attack role, though it also retained two groups of P-51s.[16]

Captain Don Gentile poses with his P-51B Mustang in the spring of 1944. After serving with one of  the RAF's Eagle Squadrons (composed of American volunteers) and shooting down two aircraft, Gentile transferred to the USAAF, eventually flying with the 4th Fighter Group. During early 1944, while flying the Mustang, he shot down 15.5 enemy planes, making him the highest-scoring ace in 8th Air Force at the time. Source: Wikipedia.

A P-51D of the 374th Fighter Squadron. Beneath the wings are 75 gallon drop tanks, which further extended the range of the Mustang. Standard practice for Mustang pilots was to drop the tanks on sighting enemy aircraft and switch to their main tanks. Source: Wikipedia.

                By the spring of 1944, the definitive version of the Mustang, the P-51D, began to arrive in England. This new Mustang had a cut down rear fuselage and bubble-shaped canopy which greatly improved pilot visibility. Additionally, two .50 caliber machine guns were added, one in each wing, making a total of six machine guns. With a maximum speed of 437mph and range of 1650 miles with external tanks, the P-51D became the premier fighter of the Eighth Air Force. Combined factors of increasingly better pilot training in the USAAF, decreasing pilot training and effectiveness in the Luftwaffe, and excellent performance allowed Mustang pilots to claim 4,950 aircraft shot down during the war, more than any other Allied fighter.[17] Dozens of Mustang pilots would become aces, a special status reserved for those who had shot down five or more enemy aircraft. Among the Mustang’s well-known pilots was then Captain Charles E. “Chuck” Yeager, who would go on the break the sound barrier in 1947- serving with the 357th Fighter Group, Yeager shot down 12.5 planes.[18] Describing a typical mission, William Lyons later recalled a mission he flew on November 21, 1944 as a 20-year old 1LT with the 355th Fighter Group:

“We’re about 12 minutes from Misburg. The 357th’s Red flight is arrayed to the right of our bomber box, and my Yellow flight is to the right of Red, with the Blue and Green flights to the left a mile behind us. Someone calmly radios, “Bogeys at 10 o’clock” (bogeys are unidentified aircraft; bandits are enemy aircraft). Another calls, “Bogeys, 2 o’clock high.” I can see little black dots ahead, and then I hear, “Bandits, 12 o’clock!” followed by “Bandits at 3!”—Kelley’s voice. The dots rapidly enlarge and multiply across the horizon. They expand into 75 to 100 Me-109s, closing fast on the front of the bomber stream. I quickly switch to the rear internal tank, drop my two external tanks and flick on the gun switch. Fred jettisons his externals and pivots right, toward 1 and 2 o’clock, where the gaggle of Germans is densest. We head into them full throttle—our combined closure speed some 600-700 mph—and go right through them, both of us narrowly avoiding crashing into enemy fighters. Our guns are firing, though I see no hits. When Fred whips back, I’m glued to his tail, right behind and to one side. Now Fred’s firing at a 109 that’s in a diving turn under the bombers, following him down while hitting him. Trailing heavy smoke, that one’s done for. Out of the corner of my eye I see a bomber burst apart, and tiny forms falling out. No parachutes are opening. Fighters from both sides are swirling contrails all over the place. Then another bomber falls, with black smoke coming from the left-wing engines. Fred latches onto another 109, both of them diving and twisting down until the 109 loses half its right wing. That’s two for Fred. We’re down to 5,000 feet. My heart is pounding, and I’m drenched in perspiration. On the radio we hear urgent shouts and warnings, some sounding close, others way off. More enemy fighters are hitting the bombers, though I can’t see them. Just now the sky seems empty of planes except our Yellow flight and the bomber stream far above us. Suddenly Kelley yells, “Yellow 2, SIX!” I pull back sharply and left, then I hear Barney Barab slowly saying, “I…got…him.” Looking back, I glimpse Barab following down a smok­ing Me-109, with Kelley trailing them. Then it hits me: Yellow 3 and 4 just saved my life. As we climb back toward the bomber stream, a 109 dives straight down almost directly ahead of us. Fred does a split-S to follow him, and during our dive we spot three more 109s on the deck, heading east. Fred corkscrews toward the trailing plane, with me following, but his dive is too steep and he has to pull out early. His target whips to the left while the leading 109 below turns right and comes in behind Fred, shooting up at him 200 to 300 yards ahead of me at about 30 degrees. I fire, landing many strikes on the German. There’s smoke and the 109 goes out of control, crashing into the deck. The rest of the 109s then disappear, heading east. I follow Fred’s low, climbing circle, and we’re joined by Yellow 3 and 4. At 500 feet Fred turns due west: We’re heading home. Kelley is flying funny, though his speed seems OK. Engine oil blackens his fuselage, but we can’t tell whether there’s damage to his plane. Now he drifts off formation, shifting erratically. Something’s wrong. The three of us radio him, but there’s no answer. Barab goes in close to take a look. Suddenly Kelley swerves into him, and they both explode in a cloud of aluminum confetti! No possibility of survival. Horrible. Fred and I circle around the silvery shards slowly floating down, looking for any positive sign, but we see nothing hopeful. We head toward home in a grim mood. Our transit over Germany to the North Sea coast is uneventful, though there’s flak over the Frisians. Fred and I are first ones back. I tell my crew chief about Kelley and Barab so he’ll tell their crew chiefs not to expect them.”[19]

Lyons would finish his tour on March 28, 1945 after completing 63 missions with two confirmed kills. The highest-scoring Mustang ace of the war was George Preddy. Previously a P-40 pilot in the Pacific, Preddy was reassigned to Europe following serious injuries resulting from a collision with another aircraft. Flying with the 352nd Fighter Group, Preddy would shoot down 25 German aircraft from late April 1944 to December 25, 1944. On one memorable occasion, August 6th, Preddy took off on a mission with a severe hangover from a party that had lasted until the early hours of the morning. Despite his condition, Preddy shot down six German planes that day. However, his luck ran out on December 25th, when he was shot down by a friendly anti-aircraft unit as he was pursuing a Luftwaffe fighter and died of his wounds.[20] The most successful Mustang unit was the 4th Fighter Group, commanded by Colonel Donald Blakeslee; the first VIII Fighter Command Group to convert to the Mustang, the 4th shot down 583 planes in the air and destroyed 469 more on the ground.[21]

Chuck Yeager's second P-51D, Glamorous Glen III, in which he shot down most of his 12.5 aircraft. Source: Wikipedia.

A P-51D of the 357th Fighter Group. Source: Wikipedia.

P-51D production line. Source: Wikipedia.

Among the operators of the P-51 was the 322nd Fighter Group, popularly known as the Red Tails or Tuskegee Airmen. Source: Wikipedia.

                Outside of Europe, the Mustang saw action in the Pacific. Reluctant to replace his P-38s with Mustangs, 5th Air Force commander Major General George Kenney refused to accept the new fighters. However, the range of the Mustangs ultimately allowed them to escort B-29s on raids against Japan late in the war. Following the captured of Iwo Jima, fighter groups were quickly established on the small island to provide escort for the big bombers. The first B-29 escort mission was carried out on April 29, 1945, when 108 P-51s escorting the Superfortresses to their target.[22]

                By the end of the war, the US had produced 15,386 P-51s of all types. Additionally, the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation in Australia had produced another 200. In the post-war era, Mustangs served in numerous air forces all over the world. Despite the advent of the jet, the Mustang saw heavy use early in the Korean War as a fighter bomber- the P-51 was the only aircraft available in significant numbers that could be sent to the theater quickly, and it served as the USAF’s primary close air support weapon for much of the war. Later in the conflict, the reconstituted Republic of Korea Air Force was given many of the USAF’s Mustangs to fly for their own missions. The P-51 was phased completely out of US inventories when the last Mustangs left the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard in 1957.[23] Other countries continued to the use the Mustang for decades. Today, the Mustang is a popular sight at air shows. Over 100 P-51s remain airworthy, with many more on static display in museums.

When the Korean War broke out in 1950, the Mustang was the most readily available aircraft that could be sent to reinforce the US 5th Air Force and ROKAF. These P-51Ds, painted in ROKAF markings, were likely handed over by USAF units after they converted to jets. THe Mustang was the primary close air support weapon during the first year of the war. Source: Wikipedia.

A USAF F-51D (During the interwar period, a redesignation of fighter aircraft from "pursuit" to "fighter" occurred) taxies through a puddle in Korea. This aircraft is armed with 2 500 lbs bombs, 4 2.75 inch rockets, and six .50 caliber machine guns. Source: Wikipedia.

A group of Mustangs at the EAA Oshkosh airshow in 2011. Well over a hundred Mustangs remain airworthy, with many more in museums and on display at airshows. Source: Author.

                The P-51 Mustang remains one of the most iconic aircraft made, and was one of the best fighter designs produced during World War II. It’s ability to escort heavy bombers all the way to their targets and then out-perform the Luftwaffe fighters which it encountered sealed the fate of the already troubled-Luftwaffe over Western and Central Europe. It’s unmatched record of nearly 5,000 kills cemented its place as the most-successful Allied fighter of the war.

Sources

1.       Dwyer, Larry. "North American P-51 Mustang." North American P-51 Mustang. The Aviation History Online Museum, 21 Nov. 2001. http://www.aviation-history.com/north-american/p51.html . 7 Feb. 2017.

2.       McGowan, Sam. "Site Navigation." Warfare History Network. Sovereign Media, 13 Jan. 2017. http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ . 19 Feb. 2017.

3.       Goebel, Greg. "The North American P-51 Mustang." The North American P-51 Mustang. N.p., 1 Feb. 2017. http://www.airvectors.net/avp51.html . 5 Feb. 2017.

4.       Garrison, Peter. "In the Mustang's Wake." HistoryNet. World History Group, 13 Apr. 2016. http://www.historynet.com/in-the-mustangs-wake.htm . 19 Feb. 2017.

5.       "North American P-51D Mustang." National Museum of the US Air Force. United States Air Force, 20 Apr. 2015. http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/196263/north-american-p-51d-mustang.aspx . 05 Feb. 2017.

6.       Erikson, Brent, Neil Stirling, and Mike Williams. "P-51 Mustang Performance." WWII Aircraft Performance. N.p., 2005. http://www.wwiiaircraftperformance.org/mustang/mustangtest.html . 05 Feb. 2017.

7.       Crawford, Bruce. "World War II: Eighth Air Force Raid on Schweinfurt." HistoryNet. World History Group, 12 June 2006. http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-eighth-air-force-raid-on-schweinfurt.htm . 19 Feb. 2017.

8.       "P-51 Mustang." Flight Journal. Air Age Media, 29 Nov. 2016. http://www.flightjournal.com/blog/2016/11/29/p-51-mustang/ . 19 Feb. 2017.

9.       Young, James. "The War Years." General Chuck Yeager. PMN III LLC, 2017. http://www.chuckyeager.com/1943-1945-the-war-years . 19 Feb. 2017.

10.   Lyons, William. "Mustang Pilot's Mission: A Day in the Life." HistoryNet. World History Group, 15 Jan. 2013. http://www.historynet.com/p-51-pilot-a-day-in-the-life.htm . 5 Feb. 2017.

11.   Bell, Kelly. "George Preddy: Top-Scoring World War II Mustang Ace." HistoryNet. World History Group, 6 Nov. 2006. http://www.historynet.com/george-preddy-top-scoring-world-war-ii-mustang-ace.htm . 05 Feb. 2017.

[1] http://www.aviation-history.com/north-american/p51.html 2/5/17

[2] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[3] http://www.airvectors.net/avp51.html 2/5/17

[4] http://www.historynet.com/in-the-mustangs-wake.htm 2/5/17

[5] http://www.aviation-history.com/north-american/p51.html 2/5/17

[6] http://www.airvectors.net/avp51.html 2/5/17

[7] http://www.airvectors.net/avp51.html 2/5/17

[8] http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/196263/north-american-p-51d-mustang.aspx 2/5/17

[9] http://www.airvectors.net/avp51.html 2/5/17

[10]http://www.aviation-history.com/north-american/p51.html 2/5/17

[11] http://www.aviation-history.com/north-american/p51.html 2/5/17

[12] http://www.wwiiaircraftperformance.org/mustang/mustangtest.html 2/5/17

[13] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[14] http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-eighth-air-force-raid-on-schweinfurt.htm 2/14/17

[15] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[16] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[17] http://www.flightjournal.com/blog/2016/11/29/p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[18] http://www.chuckyeager.com/1943-1945-the-war-years 2/14/17

[19] http://www.historynet.com/p-51-pilot-a-day-in-the-life.htm 2/14/17

[20] http://www.historynet.com/george-preddy-top-scoring-world-war-ii-mustang-ace.htm 2/5/17

[21] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[22] http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/wwii/the-untamed-north-american-p-51-mustang/ 2/5/17

[23] http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/MuseumExhibits/FactSheets/Display/tabid/509/Article/196263/north-american-p-51d-mustang.aspx 2/5/17